On May 10, 1520 Hernán Cortés left the Mexica city of Tenochtitlan to deter rival Spanish explorers who had arrived on the coast with the intention of arresting Cortés and exploiting the continent’s riches themselves. Cortés left the city to fight them, putting his deputy governor Pedro de Alvarado in charge. During Cortés’ absence, the Mexica celebrated the festival of Toxcatl, dedicated to Tezcatlipoca and Huitizilopochtli, both gods associated with war. Perhaps because Alvarado recognized the martial undertones of the festival, or perhaps merely because he and his soldiers were eager to get their hands on Mexica gold, he unleashed his soldiers on all those in attendance at the height of the ceremony. Friar Bernardino de Sahagún (1499-1590), a Franciscan missionary, provides a contemporary account of the event.

“[W]hen already the feast was being observed, when already there was dancing, when already there was singing, when already there was song with dance, the singing resounded like waves breaking. When it was already time, when the moment was opportune for the Spaniards to slay them, thereupon they came forth. They were arrayed for battle. They came everywhere to block each of the ways leading out and leading in […] No one could go out.

And when this had been done, thereupon they entered the temple courtyard to slay them. […] Thereupon they surrounded the dancers. Thereupon they went among the drums. Then they struck the drummer’s arms; they severed his hands; then they struck his neck. Far off did his neck [and head] go to fall.” (Florentine Codex, Book 12, Chapter 20)

Historians estimate hundreds died in the massacre. It represented a defining moment in Spanish/Mexica relations, accelerating hostilities. In Fig. 2.5, taken from the sixteenth-century Florentine Codex, panels 66-69 document the massacre that took place, with panel 70 showing the Templo grounds devoid of life. Panel 71 (not shown) depicts news of the massacre being spread. When Cortés returned, the Mexica attacked(panel 72, not shown). Cortés sent their captured ruler, Moctezuma, onto the rooftop to try to calm them, but considering Moctezuma a traitor, Mexica warriors stoned him as he tried to speak. He died a few days later.